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An interpretation of Maslow's hierarchy of needs, represented as a pyramid with the more basic needs at the bottom
[1]
Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a theory in
psychology proposed by
Abraham Maslow in his 1943 paper "A Theory of Human Motivation" in
Psychological Review.
[2]
Maslow subsequently extended the idea to include his observations of
humans' innate curiosity. His theories parallel many other theories of
human
developmental psychology,
some of which focus on describing the stages of growth in humans.
Maslow used the terms Physiological, Safety, Belongingness and Love,
Esteem, Self-Actualization and Self-Transcendence needs to describe the
pattern that human motivations generally move through.
Maslow studied what he called exemplary people such as
Albert Einstein,
Jane Addams,
Eleanor Roosevelt, and
Frederick Douglass rather than
mentally ill or
neurotic
people, writing that "the study of crippled, stunted, immature, and
unhealthy specimens can yield only a cripple psychology and a cripple
philosophy."
[3] Maslow studied the healthiest 1% of the college student population.
[4]
Maslow's theory was fully expressed in his 1954 book
Motivation and Personality.[5] While the hierarchy remains a very popular framework in
sociology research, management training
[6] and
secondary and
higher psychology instruction, it has largely been supplanted by
attachment theory in graduate and clinical psychology and
psychiatry.
[7][8]
Hierarchy
Maslow's hierarchy of needs is often portrayed in the shape of a
pyramid with the largest, most fundamental levels of needs at the bottom
and the need for
self-actualization at the top.
[1][9]
While the pyramid has become the de facto way to represent the
hierarchy, Maslow himself never used a pyramid to describe these levels
in any of his writings on the subject.
The most fundamental and basic four layers of the pyramid contain
what Maslow called "deficiency needs" or "d-needs": esteem, friendship
and love, security, and physical needs. If these "deficiency needs" are
not met – with the exception of the most fundamental (physiological)
need – there may not be a physical indication, but the individual will
feel anxious and tense. Maslow's theory suggests that the most basic
level of needs must be met before the individual will strongly desire
(or focus motivation upon) the secondary or higher level needs. Maslow
also coined the term
Metamotivation to describe the motivation of people who go beyond the scope of the basic needs and strive for constant betterment.
[10]
The human mind and brain are complex and have parallel processes
running at the same time, thus many different motivations from various
levels of Maslow's hierarchy can occur at the same time. Maslow spoke
clearly about these levels and their satisfaction in terms such as
"relative," "general," and "primarily." Instead of stating that the
individual focuses on a certain need at any given time, Maslow stated
that a certain need "dominates" the human organism.
[11]
Thus Maslow acknowledged the likelihood that the different levels of
motivation could occur at any time in the human mind, but he focused on
identifying the basic types of motivation and the order in which they
should be met.
Physiological needs
Physiological needs are the physical requirements for human survival.
If these requirements are not met, the human body cannot function
properly, and will ultimately fail. Physiological needs are thought to
be the most important; they should be met first.
Air, water, and food are
metabolic
requirements for survival in all animals, including humans. Clothing
and shelter provide necessary protection from the elements. While
maintaining an adequate birth rate shapes the intensity of the human
sexual instinct,
sexual competition may also shape said instinct.
[2]
Safety needs
With their physical needs relatively satisfied, the individual's
safety needs take precedence and dominate behavior. In the absence of
physical safety – due to war, natural disaster,
family violence,
childhood abuse, etc. – people may (re-)experience
post-traumatic stress disorder or
transgenerational trauma.
In the absence of economic safety – due to economic crisis and lack of
work opportunities – these safety needs manifest themselves in ways such
as a preference for
job security,
grievance procedures for protecting the individual from unilateral
authority, savings accounts, insurance policies, reasonable disability
accommodations, etc. This level is more likely to be found in children
because they generally have a greater need to feel safe.
Safety and Security needs include:
- Personal security
- Financial security
- Health and well-being
- Safety net against accidents/illness and their adverse impacts
Love and belonging
After physiological and safety needs are fulfilled, the third level of human needs is interpersonal and involves feelings of
belongingness.
This need is especially strong in childhood and can override the need
for safety as witnessed in children who cling to abusive parents.
Deficiencies within this level of Maslow's hierarchy – due to
hospitalism,
neglect,
shunning,
ostracism, etc. – can impact the individual's ability to form and maintain emotionally significant relationships in general, such as:
- Friendship
- Intimacy
- Family
According to Maslow, humans need to feel a sense of belonging and
acceptance among their social groups, regardless if these groups are
large or small. For example, some large social groups may include clubs,
co-workers, religious groups, professional organizations, sports teams,
and gangs. Some examples of small social connections include family
members, intimate partners, mentors, colleagues, and confidants. Humans
need to love and be loved – both sexually and non-sexually – by others.
[2] Many people become susceptible to loneliness,
social anxiety, and
clinical depression
in the absence of this love or belonging element. This need for
belonging may overcome the physiological and security needs, depending
on the strength of the peer pressure.
Esteem
All humans have a need to feel respected; this includes the need to have
self-esteem
and self-respect. Esteem presents the typical human desire to be
accepted and valued by others. People often engage in a profession or
hobby to gain recognition. These activities give the person a sense of
contribution or value. Low self-esteem or an
inferiority complex
may result from imbalances during this level in the hierarchy. People
with low self-esteem often need respect from others; they may feel the
need to seek fame or glory. However, fame or glory will not help the
person to build their self-esteem until they accept who they are
internally. Psychological imbalances such as
depression can hinder the person from obtaining a higher level of self-esteem or self-respect.
Most people have a need for stable self-respect and self-esteem.
Maslow noted two versions of esteem needs: a "lower" version and a
"higher" version. The "lower" version of esteem is the need for respect
from others. This may include a need for status, recognition, fame,
prestige, and attention. The "higher" version manifests itself as the
need for self-respect. For example, the person may have a need for
strength, competence, mastery,
self-confidence,
independence, and freedom. This "higher" version takes precedence over
the "lower" version because it relies on an inner competence established
through experience. Deprivation of these needs may lead to an
inferiority complex, weakness, and helplessness.
Maslow states that while he originally thought the needs of humans
had strict guidelines, the "hierarchies are interrelated rather than
sharply separated".
[5] This means that esteem and the subsequent levels are not strictly separated; instead, the levels are closely related.
Self-actualization
"What a man can be, he must be."
[12]
This quotation forms the basis of the perceived need for
self-actualization. This level of need refers to what a person's full
potential is and the realization of that potential. Maslow describes
this level as the desire to accomplish everything that one can, to
become the most that one can be.
[13]
Individuals may perceive or focus on this need very specifically. For
example, one individual may have the strong desire to become an ideal
parent. In another, the desire may be expressed athletically. For
others, it may be expressed in paintings, pictures, or inventions.
[14]
As previously mentioned, Maslow believed that to understand this level
of need, the person must not only achieve the previous needs, but master
them.
Research
Recent research appears to validate the existence of universal human
needs, although the hierarchy proposed by Maslow is called into
question.
[15][16]
Other research indicates that Maslow's explanations of the hierarchy of
human motivation reflect a binary pattern of growth as seen in math.
The individual's awareness of first, second, and third person
perspectives, and of each one's input needs and output needs, moves
through a general pattern that is basically the same as Maslow's.
[17]
Following
World War II, the unmet needs of homeless and orphaned children presented difficulties that were often addressed with the help of
attachment theory, which was initially based on Maslow and others' developmental psychology work by
John Bowlby.
[18] Originally dealing primarily with
maternal deprivation
and concordant losses of essential and primal needs, attachment theory
has since been extended to provide explanations of nearly all the human
needs in Maslow's hierarchy, from sustenance and mating to group
membership and justice.
[8]
While Maslow's hierarchy remains a very popular framework in sociology
research and secondary and postsecondary psychology instruction, it has
largely been supplanted by attachment theory in graduate and clinical
psychology and psychiatry.
[7]
Criticism
In their extensive review of research based on Maslow's theory, Wahba
and Bridwell found little evidence for the ranking of needs that Maslow
described or for the existence of a definite hierarchy at all.
[19]
The order in which the hierarchy is arranged (with self-actualization
described as the highest need) has been criticized as being
ethnocentric by
Geert Hofstede.
[20]
Maslow's hierarchy of needs fails to illustrate and expand upon the
difference between the social and intellectual needs of those raised in
individualistic societies and those raised in
collectivist
societies. The needs and drives of those in individualistic societies
tend to be more self-centered than those in collectivist societies,
focusing on improvement of the self, with self-actualization being the
apex of self-improvement. In collectivist societies, the needs of
acceptance and community will outweigh the needs for freedom and
individuality.
[21]
The term "Self-actualization" may not universally convey Maslow's
observations; this motivation refers to focusing on becoming the best
person that one can possibly strive for in the service of both the self
and others.
[11]
Maslow's term of self-actualization might not properly portray the full
extent of this level; quite often, when a person is at the level of
self-actualization, much of what they accomplish in general may benefit
others or, "the greater self".
The position and value of sex on the pyramid has also been a source
of criticism regarding Maslow's hierarchy. Maslow's hierarchy places sex
in the physiological needs category along with food and breathing; it
lists sex solely from an individualistic perspective. For example, sex
is placed with other physiological needs which must be satisfied before a
person considers "higher" levels of motivation. Some critics feel this
placement of sex neglects the emotional, familial, and evolutionary
implications of sex within the community, although others point out that
this is true of all of the basic needs.
[22][23]
Changes to the hierarchy by circumstance
The higher-order (self-esteem and self-actualization) and lower-order
(physiological, safety, and love) needs classification of Maslow's
hierarchy of needs is not universal and may vary across cultures due to
individual differences and availability of resources in the region or
geopolitical entity/country.
In one study, exploratory factor analysis (EFA) of a thirteen item
scale showed there were two particularly important levels of needs in
the US during the peacetime of 1993 to 1994: survival (physiological and
safety) and psychological (love, self-esteem, and self-actualization).
In 1991, a retrospective peacetime measure was established and collected
during the Persian Gulf War and US citizens were asked to recall the
importance of needs from the previous year. Once again, only two levels
of needs were identified; therefore, people have the ability and
competence to recall and estimate the importance of needs. For citizens
in the Middle East (Egypt and Saudi Arabia), three levels of needs
regarding importance and satisfaction surfaced during the 1990
retrospective peacetime. These three levels were completely different
from those of the US citizens.
Changes regarding the importance and satisfaction of needs from the
retrospective peacetime to the wartime due to stress varied
significantly across cultures (the US vs. the Middle East). For the US
citizens, there was only one level of needs since all needs were
considered equally important. With regards to satisfaction of needs
during the war, in the US there were three levels: physiological needs,
safety needs, and psychological needs (social, self-esteem, and
self-actualization). During the war, the satisfaction of physiological
needs and safety needs were separated into two independent needs while
during peacetime, they were combined as one. For the people of the
Middle East, the satisfaction of needs changed from three levels to two
during wartime.
[24][25][26]
A 1981 study looked at how Maslow's hierarchy might vary across age groups.
[27]
A survey asked participants of varying ages to rate a set number of
statements from most important to least important. The researchers found
that children had higher physical need scores than the other groups,
the love need emerged from childhood to young adulthood, the esteem need
was highest among the adolescent group, young adults had the highest
self-actualization level, and while old age had the highest level of
security, it was needed across all levels comparably. The authors argued
that this suggested Maslow's hierarchy may be limited as a theory for
developmental sequence since the sequence of the love need and the
self-esteem need should be reversed according to age.
See also
Further reading
References
- ^ a b Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
- ^ a b c Maslow, A.H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50(4), 370–96. Retrieved from http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Maslow/motivation.htm
- ^ Maslow, A (1954). Motivation and personality. New York, NY: Harper. p. 236. ISBN 0-06-041987-3.
- ^ Mittelman, W. (1991). Maslow's study of self-actualization: A reinterpretation. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 31(1), 114–135. doi: 10.1177/0022167891311010
- ^ a b Maslow, A. (1954). Motivation and personality. New York, NY: Harper.
- ^ Kremer, William Kremer; Hammond, Claudia (31 August 2013). "Abraham Maslow and the pyramid that beguiled business". BBC news magazine. Retrieved 1 September 2013.
- ^ a b van
IJzendoorn MH, Sagi-Schwartz A (2008). "Cross-Cultural Patterns of
Attachment; Universal and Contextual Dimensions". In Cassidy J, Shaver
PR. Handbook of Attachment: Theory, Research and Clinical Applications. New York and London: Guilford Press. pp. 880–905. ISBN 9781593858742.
- ^ a b Bugental DB (2000). "Acquisition of the Algorithms of Social Life: A Domain-Based Approach". Psychological Bulletin 126 (2): 178–219. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.126.2.187. PMID 10748640.
- ^ Steere, B. F. (1988). Becoming an effective classroom manager: A resource for teachers.. Albany, NY: SUNY Press. ISBN 0-88706-620-8, 9780887066207 .
- ^ Goble, F. (1970). The third force: The psychology of Abraham Maslow. Richmond, CA: Maurice Bassett Publishing. pp. 62.
- ^ a b Maslow, A. (1954). Motivation and personality. New York, NY: Harper
- ^ Maslow, A. (1954). Motivation and personality. New York, NY: Harper. pp. 91.
- ^ Maslow, A. (1954). Motivation and personality. New York, NY: Harper. pp. 92.
- ^ Maslow, A. (1954). Motivation and personality. New York, NY: Harper. pp. 93.
- ^ Villarica, H. (2011, Aug 17). Maslow 2.0: A new and improved recipe for happiness. The Atlantic. Retrieved from http://www.theatlantic.com/life/archive/2011/08/maslow-20-a-new-and-improved-recipe-for-happiness/243486/#.TkvKIRv8USE.facebook
- ^ Tay, L., & Diener, E. (2011). Needs and subjective well-being around the world. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101(2), 354–365. doi: 10.1037/a0023779
- ^ Cronburg, T. (2010). Maslow 2.0 human hierarchy of needs [Image]. Retrieved from [1]
- ^ Bretherton, I. (1992). "The Origins of Attachment Theory: John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth". Developmental Psychology 28 (5): 759–775. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.28.5.759.
- ^ Wahba, M. A., & Bridwell, L. G. (1976). Maslow reconsidered: A review of research on the need hierarchy theory. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 15(2), 212–240. doi: 10.1016/0030-5073(76)90038-6
- ^ Hofstede, G. (1984). The cultural relativity of the quality of life concept. Academy of Management Review, 9(3), 389–398. Retrieved from http://www.nyegaards.com/yansafiles/Geert%20Hofstede%20cultural%20attitudes.pdf
- ^ Cianci, R., & Gambrel, P. A. (2003). Maslow's hierarchy of needs: Does it apply in a collectivist culture. Journal of Applied Management and Entrepreneurship, 8(2), 143–161.
- ^ Kenrick, D. (2010, May 19). Rebuilding Maslow's pyramid on an evolutionary foundation. Psychology Today. Retrieved from http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/sex-murder-and-the-meaning-life/201005/rebuilding-maslow-s-pyramid-evolutionary-foundation
- ^ Kenrick,
D. T., Griskevicius, V., Neuberg, S. L., & Schaller, M. (2010).
Renovating the pyramid of needs: Contemporary extensions built upon
ancient foundations. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 5, 292. doi: 10.1177/1745691610369469
- ^ Tang,
T. L., & West, W. B. (1997). The importance of human needs during
peacetime, retrospective peacetime, and the Persian Gulf War. International Journal of Stress Management, 4(1), 47–62.
- ^ Tang,
T. L., & Ibrahim, A. H. (1998). Importance of human needs during
retrospective peacetime and the Persian Gulf War: Mid-eastern employees.
International Journal of Stress Management, 5(1), 25–37. Retrieved from http://www.springerlink.com/content/h1q9vg84760uhh5u/
- ^ Tang,
T. L., Ibrahim, A. H., & West, W. B. (2002). Effects of war-related
stress on the satisfaction of human needs: The United States and the
Middle East. International Journal of Management Theory and Practices, 3(1), 35–53.
- ^ Goebel, B. L., & Brown, D. R. (1981). Age differences in motivation related to Maslow's need hierarchy. Developmental Psychology, 17, 809–815. doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.17.6.809
External links
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maslow%27s_hierarchy_of_needs
![[1]](http://www.thewiseturtle.com/images/hierarchy.gif){kind=link}